5 Tigers : The Tiger Information Center Search Our Site
5 Tigers : The Tiger Information Center

Management and Conservation of Captive Tigers,
Chapter 2 continued

Routine Health Management

Medical Records

The systematic gathering and recording of medical and pathological data in a uniform manner is mandatory to any medical program. These records contain vaccinations, diseases, surgeries, anesthetic episodes, parasite problems, weights, medications received, blood and other clinical pathology data, etc. It is vital to start this during the quarantine period and continue it through the animal's life in the collection and then, if the animal dies, the necropsy findings will be part of the record. There are computer programs to compile and manage these data (e.g., MedARKS from International Species Information System, ISIS). If computers are not yet available, then complete written records should be maintained and thought should be given to developing codes that will help entering these data into a computerized record system at a later date. The value of medical records cannot be overemphasized.

Identification

(from the editors of this volume)

The ability to absolutely confirm an animal's identification is essential to any species management program either within a zoo or on a regional, national or global level. Individual identification is also essential to the accuracy of medical and animal management records. Each individual tiger should be permanently identified by at least two different methods. At the present time the two most dependable methods are the tattoo and the transponder. Tattoos may be placed in various locations. The medial (inside) surface of the upper rear leg is used in many tigers. This location is large enough to permit large, legible tattoos to be placed while not normally being visible when the tiger is on public display. The tattoo placed must be an identification number unique to that individual tiger, such as the animal's permanent studbook number.

Glass-encapsulated microchip transponders placed subcutaneously in the tiger provide a second permanent identification method. The use of a standard system and transponder location simplifies the identification of tigers transferred between institutions. At the present time, the IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group recommends the use of the Trovan transponder system (Infopet Identification Systems, 415 W. Travelers Trail, Burnsville, MN, USA 55337; phone 1-800-INFOPET, or 612-890-2080) with transponders placed at the base of the left ear in tigers. Transponders have also been placed interscapularly in tigers.)

 

Serum Banking

(from the editors )

A bank of frozen serum samples stored in an ultra-low-temperature freezer at -70 C should be maintained at each institution. This serum bank should contain a 5 to 20 ml sample of serum from each procedure in which blood samples were collected from any tiger in the collection.

The serum bank permits retrospective epidemiological studies when a disease outbreak has occurred or new disease entities have been identified. Individual serum chemistry analyses can be evaluated on banked samples to evaluate health parameters that may not have been performed when samples were initially collected. Surplus banked serum can be used as an antibody source to provide passive immunity to tiger cubs when there is a failure of passive antibody transfer from the dam of the cubs such as in hand-rearing situations. However, passive immunity transfer requires large volumes (100 ml) to be effective, and extra serum should be banked for this purpose.

 

Adult Anesthesia

Anesthesia is a critical component of the overall medical program in all nondomestic felids. Anesthesia allows the veterinarian safe access to the patient for diagnostic, therapeutic, surgical and research procedures. The state of the art and science of anesthesia in this species has advanced so that the procedure is expected to be routine and safe. When problems occur, overall medical and research programs are potentially endangered. Therefore, safe anesthesia through appropriate techniques is mandatory. Veterinarians wanting more detailed information on this subject can write Dr. Ronald Tilson, Conservation Department, Minnesota Zoo, 13000 Zoo Blvd., Apple Valley, MN 55124.

 

Complete Physical Examination

Usually two to three weeks into the quarantine period a complete physical examination should be performed under general anesthesia. Complete physical examinations should subsequently be performed on an annual basis. This exam should include evaluation of each organ system following a regular protocol to assure completeness. The exam should include the following (see checklist, Table 1):

  • Rectal body temperature
  • External: eyes, ears (ear mites), pelage (external parasites), feet and claws
  • Oral cavity: the pharynx, gingiva and particularly the teeth for calculus or exposed root canals
  • Palpation of limbs, including movement of joints, lymph nodes, and abdomen to detect the presence of organ enlargement, fluid, or masses
  • Auscultation of the thorax for pulmonary and cardiac assessment (rate and rhythm)
  • Body weight
  • Blood sample for hematological and clinical chemical screening and for serum banking

Table 1. Checklist of routine examination procedures for felids during quarantine, the ongoing preventative medical program and prior to shipment (ACN=as clinically needed).

Quarantine Ongoing Preshipment
Physical Exam + + +
Blood Sampling

    CBC, Chemistries

+ + +

    Serum bank

+ + +
Radiographs + ACN +
Fecal Examination + + +
Fecal Culture + ACN +
Vaccinations

    Fel-O-Vax

+ + +

    Rabies (killed)

+ + +
Dental Examination + + +
Body Weight + + +
Transponder + check check
Tattoo + check check
Viral Screen (includes FIP) + + +

For a more thorough physical examination, a complete set of survey radiographs is recommended to assist in the overall assessment of the tiger and as a reference set for the future. In addition, semen collection via electroejaculation is recommended for unproven adult males destined to be breeders. Complete physical examinations should also be performed at the time of more targeted examinations for specific health problems. A protocol for regular physical examination should be established in order to monitor health over time as a component of an overall preventative medical program.

 

Dental Examination

A thorough oral examination is an integral part of a physical exam, either planned or done whenever anesthesia is performed. As a tiger ages, this examination becomes more important for prevention of dental problems causing systemic diseases. The oral examination should include dental structures for fractures and periodontal disease. A common problem reported in exotic felids relates to wear or trauma from fighting between tigers or contact with enclosure material. The most common dental finding is calculus accumulation, especially along the buccal surface of the upper molars and premolars.

During the examination, the teeth and the soft tissue structures of the mouth and throat are examined for abnormalities. Odor from the mouth may prove to be an important indicator of a dental problem. Foreign bodies lodged between oral structures, such as bone fragments or sticks can be incidental findings but predisposes the animal to oral disease. These should be removed and infections or traumatic lesions treated as indicated.

 

Blood Baseline Values

During quarantine, a blood sample should be obtained to evaluate the animal's health status and provide a baseline for future comparison. An initial blood sample can be taken prior to anesthesia by placing the tiger in a squeeze cage and bleeding it from the lateral tail vein. This will help evaluate the animal's status prior to anesthesia for a complete physical examination. It is recommended that all zoos participating in the AZA Tiger SSP have access to a squeeze cage. Clinical parameters of primary interest are total WBC count and differential, hematocrit, BUN, creatinine, liver enzyme values and an examination for red blood cell parasites. A summary of normal blood values for tigers is listed in Table 3 (compiled by ISIS). It should be recognized that values may differ between various laboratories, and the best set of values is the one that your laboratory compiles.

The collection of blood samples for laboratory evaluation and serum banking should be a part of every immobilization or physical examination.

Table 2. Normal blood values for Panthera tigris (compiled by ISIS).

 

Preventative Medical Procedures

Preventive medical programs during quarantine have been stressed in the opening section. It is important to continue this concept as an ongoing program in the captive maintenance of the tiger.

An important portion of this preventive approach should include routine observation of the tigers in the collection, not only by the keepers, but also by the veterinary staff. Routine rounds through the cat area should be made to remain familiar with the tigers, to evaluate their overall appearance, activity, and facility conditions, and to talk with the keepers. The veterinarian's experience allows him/her to detect an abnormality or develop an impression about the tigers' health and management that may not be obvious to the keeper staff. Familiarity with normal conditions in tigers will allow a better comparison when the animal is suspected of having an abnormality. A good relationship with the keepers promotes open communications between the animal and veterinary staff, which is vital to any medical program. There are potential limitations to these visits, since many large felids including tigers recognize the veterinary staff and associate them with some past negative situation usually involving a manipulative procedure. These tigers can react aggressively, which masks the subtle first signs of many medical problems; therefore the medical staff must carefully consider keepers' observations concerning subtle changes in their tigers.

 

Immunizations

Vaccinations given during quarantine allow time for antibody response prior to the tiger's release to the collection. Severely stressed animals may not mount appropriate titers and should be re-vaccinated if conditions indicate. Tigers that have never been vaccinated previously will require at least two vaccinations, three weeks apart, to produce adequate antibody levels. Subsequent vaccinations to maintain protective antibody levels should be provided at least annually throughout the animal's life and in some cases more frequently.

All vaccines used should be killed vaccines whenever possible in order to prevent the occurrence of vaccine-induced disease. No modified live vaccines have been adequately tested in tigers.

Panleukopenia, Rhinotracheitis and Calicivirus. Panleukopenia (feline distemper), rhinotracheitis and calicivirus are the most common viral infectious diseases of domestic cats. There is one vaccine that provides good antibody titers to these three major infectious viral diseases. This is a killed product, (Fel-o-vax, Fort Dodge Lab Inc., Fort Dodge, IA 50501) and provides apparent protection at a 1-ml dose (domestic cat) in adult tigers (Bush et al. 1981). The European Endangered Species Program (EEP) recommends 1 ml of Fel-O-Vax be used for boosters in adults; juveniles should be vaccinated at 8, 12, and 16 weeks, repeated at six months, and then given annual boosters.

Canine Distemper Virus. The canine distemper virus has historically been considered largely insignificant as a felid pathogen. However, recent cases identify canine distemper as a potentially significant pathogen in captive tiger populations (Appel et. al. 1994). At the present time no vaccine is available that has been tested as effective and safe in Panthera species. No commercially produced killed vaccine is currently available. Modified live vaccines carry the risk of inducing the disease in species in which they have not been tested. For the present, the protection of captive felid populations from contact with potential sources of infection, such as dogs and free ranging wildlife capable of carrying the infection, is the most effective method of prevention. If an outbreak of canine distemper occurs or the risk of exposure is very high, then vaccination with highly attentuated avian-origin modified live vaccines such as FrommeD (Solvay Animal Health Inc., Mendota Heights, MN, USA) or FER VAC-D (United Vaccines, Inc., Madison, WI, USA) may be considered but does carry some risk since no clinical trials have been conducted in tigers.

Rabies. The use of rabies vaccines is dependent on local situations. In areas endemic for rabies, a killed vaccine (Imrab, Pitman-Moore, Inc., Washington Crossing, NJ 08560) is recommended for protection of the animal. We realize this recommendation is at odds with the Compendium of Animal Rabies Vaccines, which was prepared by the National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians, but we view it as necessary to protect our patients, particularly in areas where rabies is enzootic in the wildlife. The use of a killed rabies vaccine at the recommended dose (1 ml) produced serum titers, in captive tigers, equivalent to those reported to be protective in domestic species (Bush et al. 1985). This vaccine should be repeated yearly in rabies endemic areas.

Leptospirosis. Leptospirosis is a potential disease in all mammals but has not been reported in tigers. In environments where leptospirosis occurs, vaccination of tigers with a bacterin may be indicated. Two problems arise: first, the correct vaccine serotype may not be available; and second, the duration of protection is usually short lived, 2-3 months.

Feline Leukemia. Vaccination of tigers and other nondomestic felids with feline leukemia vaccine produces good titers. The use of this vaccine as a regular procedure, however, requires more consideration since no tigers have been found to be positive for this virus. Neoplastic and immunosuppression syndromes, as occur in domestic cats with feline leukemia virus, have not been documented in tigers. Vaccination-induced titers could also impair epidemiologic studies in place.

 

Preventive Dental Care

Sound, regular prophylactic dental care is important in preventing bacteremia of oral origin that can contribute to or promote systemic disease (Fagen 1980a, 1980b). Calculus accumulation should be removed from the tooth surfaces, with care taken to remove material from the subgingival sulcus. If power equipment is available, the scraped surfaces should be polished to smooth dental surfaces, which deters future calculus accumulation. At this time, the subgingival sulcus, gingiva, and teeth should be examined for evidence of gingivitis or periodontal disease. Good nutrition is needed to maintain healthy oral structures. The feeding of bone twice weekly helps promote good gingival health (Haberstroh et al. 1984).

 

Screening for Parasites and Pathogenic Bacteria

During quarantine tigers are screened for internal parasites by repeated fecal examinations. If present, parasites should be eliminated, with appropriate anthelmintics, before the tiger is released into an exhibit. This is extremely important in naturalistic exhibits (i.e., dirt and grass), which may become contaminated with parasite eggs. These eggs subsequently reinfect the tigers and are extremely difficult to eliminate from the exhibit. Screening for enteric bacterial pathogens should be performed occasionally because salmonella, shigella, and others are shed intermittently.

 

Parasites

A parasite-monitoring program provides periodic, regular stool examinations to detect parasitic infections. Most internal parasites found in stool examinations are relatively common and ubiquitous in captive situations, with some less frequent infections reported (see Bush et al. 1987). Commonly identified species are from the orders Ascarididae and Strongyloidae (i.e., Toxocara, Toxascaris, Ancylostoma). It is seldom possible to eliminate ascarids totally in the tiger, but they are controllable with periodic administration of oral anthelminthic. These agents can be more effective when the full recommended dosage is given for more than one day, such as three consecutive days, rather than as single treatments. Post-treatment fecal examinations are necessary in assessing efficacy of the initial treatment. Follow-up treatments to remove larval stages not susceptible during the initial treatment may be required. Thorough daily cleaning and disinfection of housing facilities and housing tigers in quarters with sanitizable surfaces will substantially reduce reinfections.

Anthelminthic Programs

In our experience we have found the following anthelminthics effective and safe when administered using appropriate dosage regimens:

Pyrantel pamoate (Strongid-T, Pfizer Inc., New York, NY 10017): 3-5 mg/kg per os. Can be given at this level for 3-5 consecutive days;

Fenbendazole (Panacur, American Hoescht, Somerville, NJ 08876): 5-10 mg/kg per os. Most commonly single day treatment, but can be given three consecutive days at this level; EEP reports 20 mg/kg per day or 100 mg/kg as a one-off dose.

Febantel (Rintal, Miles Inc, Agriculture Division, Shawnee Mission, KS 6201): 6 mg/kg once a day for three days per os. Retreat in two weeks.

Ivermectin (Ivomec, Merck and Co., Rahway, NJ 07065): 0.2 mg/kg, subcutaneous or per os. We have used injectable cattle formulation orally at this dose for 1-3 days. Limited use in tigers with the parenteral route;

Praziquantel (Droncit, Haver-Lockhart, Shawnee, KS 66201): 5.5-6.6 mg/kg. Either as the oral or parenteral form for cestodes;

Sulfadimethoxine (Albon, Roche Chemical Div., Nutley, NJ 07110): 50 mg/kg, parenteral or per os, as a coccidiostat.

Not all eggs or larva observed in fecal examinations may be parasitic to the tiger. The tiger may be serving as a transport host depending on what it has been fed or what feral animals it consumed. Coccidia observed may be associated with feeding whole carcass specimens (e.g., whole rabbits). This emphasizes the need for specific identification of parasite stages seen in stool and an awareness of the tiger's diet.

Pest Control

An obvious need for pest control exists in any animal holding facility. Feral animals serve as sources of additional problems for tigers. Rodents, birds, domestic cats or dogs, or other pests that have access to the tiger or its enclosure may serve as a source of contamination for microorganisms or parasites.

Well-maintained perimeter fencing provides an initial deterrent to the larger feral animals, particularly dogs. However, climbing animals, such as feral cats, can easily defeat such barriers; therefore, areas around tiger enclosures should be monitored regularly for feral animal activity. Live trapping provides a method of removing feral animals acceptable to the public and humane animal interest groups. Local animal shelters usually assist in removal of captured domestic animals. Removal of captured wildlife may be coordinated through state agencies or local rehabilitation groups. Trapping does not provide a total eradication of pests; therefore, the design of the tiger enclosures reduces exposure to feral animals.

Since feral cats are a reoccurring and difficult problem, a potential but untried solution might be to allow a vasectomized male domestic cat (vaccinated and wormed) to establish a territory in the vicinity to rebuke unwanted feral cats (from Jill Mellen, Metro Washington Park Zoo, Portland, OR).

 

Rodent Pests

Rodent pests must be handled through a well-planned, supervised, continuous pest control program. Safe rodenticides are available for use around tigers when applied according to their directions. Care must be taken in choosing compounds that are effective, yet not highly toxic, especially when considering secondary toxicities. A number of effective anticoagulant rodenticides are available with little or no secondary toxicity potential, e.g., warfarin, diphacinone, cholecalciferol, brodifacoum. These are the backbone of most vermin control programs. When rodent populations become unmanageable or resistant to anticoagulants, other more toxic compounds, such as zinc phosphide may be needed, requiring extra care in their application. It may seem too obvious, but it should be emphasized that at no time should tigers have primary access to any rodenticide. In addition, the program should be designed and instituted to minimize secondary exposure (i.e., consuming rodents that have been feeding on poisonous baits).

 

Insect Pests

Good sanitation aids in reducing insect populations, but all zoological situations experience insect pests, particularly cockroaches. Insecticide applications can be made around tiger enclosures with chemicals that are safe when applied in a proper manner. There are many chemicals available, both primary insecticides and newer growth regulator compounds, that have low toxicity potential when used correctly. (Examples of insecticides include: diazinon, piperonyl butoxide, natural and synthetic pyrethrins, carbamates, chlorpyrifos; example of growth inhibitor is Gencor.) Tiger enclosures are treated by removing the tigers, applying chemicals safe to use in primary enclosures, and then cleaning the enclosure to avoid exposure to returning tigers. The residual chemicals in cracks and crevices should have no contact with the tigers but, if so, exposure levels should be minimal. All personnel involved with the tigers must participate in the planning stage of the pest control program so everyone is aware of the compounds being used, where and how they are applied, and knowledgeable of the safety of the compounds. Safety of the tigers is utmost in any program.

Inadvertent use or misuse of insecticides (and herbicides and miscellaneous toxic compounds not intended for use around animals) can lead to accidental exposure of tigers and possibly fatal results. One author (L. Phillips) has personally experienced loss of several tigers due to incorrect application of insecticides by inexperienced personnel due to a breakdown in communications. The veterinary staff was not aware that an organophosphate was being used by keepers. Situations like this must be avoided by carefully planned pest control programs and subsequent correct applications of pesticides.

Besides the aesthetic reasons for eliminating pests, a more important reason is eliminating potential diseases found in feral mammals, birds, rodents and insects. The ectoparasites of mammals such as fleas, ticks, and mites, can be transmitted to tigers; as well, internal parasites of these same feral animals can be acquired by tigers and cause infection. Feral animals also serve as potential sources of pathogens such as the feline viral diseases, rabies, yersiniosis, leptospirosis, salmonellosis, toxoplasmosis, feline infectious peritonitis, and others.

 

Tiger Diseases

Gastrointestinal Diseases

Certain gastrointestinal syndromes have been placed under general categories as "general adaptation syndrome" or "tiger disease" (reviewed in Seidel and Wisser 1987). These problems are historically noted in tigers, especially Siberians. The proposed etiology of "tiger disease" has been reported to be a pancreatic dysfunction (Eulenberger 1981, Straub and Seidel 1983) or disruption of gastrointestinal flora (Kloss and Lang 1976). Stress was documented as the cause in one report which correlated the digestive upsets with sudden changes in the tiger's environment (Cocin et al. 1973). Gastrointestinal upsets should be investigated as being caused by diet, infectious agents (Salmonella spp., Clostridium), or concurrent kidney failure. The specific cause is then treated if identified.

 

Kidney, Liver and Respiratory Diseases

Kidney, liver and respiratory diseases are recognized problems in aged tigers, and more information is needed (see Bush et al. 1987).

 

Bacterial Diseases

Tuberculosis, caused by Mycobacterium bovis, has been a major disease problem in tigers in some settings (Michalska 1972). It presents as a chronic non-responsive disease with the lungs as target organs. Localized tuberculous lesions involving the eyes have also been reported (Michalska et al. 1978). Ante-mortem tests are reported to be unreliable. In collections with severe problems, cubs have been vaccinated with BCG starting at four weeks of age, but BCG vaccinations may not be indicated in most situations.

Anthrax has been seen in large felids including tigers (Abdulla et al. 1982). The patient usually dies in 1-4 days. On post-mortem examination there are blood clots reported on the spleen that in the earlier literature were called tumors. Reported treatment includes antisera and antibiotics which have met with limited success. Anthrax is almost always due to feeding contaminated meat (see Chapter 4 for precautions).

Systemic bacterial diseases have been seen in captive tigers such as bacterial meningitis from Klebsiella and Diplococcus (Wallach and Boever 1983). Colisepticemia (Sathyanarayana et al. 1983), Shigella flexneri (Zaki 1980), Salmonella spp. (Kloss and Lang 1976), Corynebacterium pyogenes (Sathyanarayana et al. 1981) and Clostridium perfringens (Pulling 1976) have caused fatal disease in tiger cubs.

Salmonellosis, caused by Salmonella typhimurium, is a recognized medical problem in tigers, occurring either sporadically or as outbreaks (Kloss and Lang 1976). Other species of Salmonella are implicated in enteric disease affecting both young and adult tigers with symptoms ranging from mild gastrointestinal upset to death. To prevent salmonellosis in captive groups of tigers, there must be quality control at the production source, the diet should be maintained frozen prior to feeding, and the thawing process and feeding method must reduce possible contamination (see Chapter 4, Nutrition, Food Preparation and Feeding).

Another source of salmonellosis may be a tiger that is an asymptomatic carrier of Salmonella spp. These tigers serve as sources of infection for others, especially young tigers, and may break with the disease themselves if stressed.

There is a potential for zoonosis with Salmonella spp., as the organisms found in stool cultures from diseased tigers can also cause salmonellosis in humans (Rettig 1983). Potential zoonosis risks can occur with the diseases listed above, such as tuberculosis, rabies and anthrax; therefore it is necessary to take routine preventative precautions when working with a sick tiger.

 

Viral Diseases

Canine Distemper. (from the editors) Multiple cases of the morbillivirus, canine distemper, as a cause of morbidity and mortality in Panthera tigris and other felid species have now been documented (Appel et al 1994). Historically the canine distemper virus as a cause of chronic encephalomyelitis in a Bengal tiger (P.t. tigris) was reported in 1983 (Blythe et al. 1983). Evidence of a paramyxo-like virus associated with encephalitis in a Siberian tiger (P.t. altaica) was also reported in 1983 (Gould and Fenner 1983). Two adult snow leopards (Panthera uncia) died in 1988 with symptoms of weakness, hemorrhagic feces, seizures, head tilt, ataxia, nasal discharge and dyspnea. Feline panleukopenia virus was confirmed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay ante-mortem in one of these leopards. In addition to lesions consistent with feline panleukopenia virus found on necropsy, evidence of interstitial pneumonia was found in both animals. Although virus isolation attempts were negative, canine distemper virus was confirmed in the affected lung of one animal by multiple fluorescent antibody tests. In addition, both snow leopards developed positive serum titers for canine distemper virus during the course of the disease (Fix et al. 1989).

During 1992, canine distemper outbreaks in Panthera species occurred at three geographically separate facilities in the United States. Two leopards (Panthera pardus) died in Illinois with symptoms of depression, anorexia, ataxia and seizures (Dierks). Two tigers at a California facility also developed central nervous system symptoms. One of these cats died and the other recovered with no chronic symptoms. At a separate facility in California, enteric, respiratory and central nervous system symptoms developed in a large group of cats. Seventeen animals died including one jaguar (Panthera onca), four leopards, five tigers, and seven lions (Panthera leo).

Canine distemper virus was isolated from at least one animal at each of the three locations. The isolated viruses were indistinguishable from the naturally occurring type of the virus isolated from dogs and other species. No evidence was found of other concurrent viral infections such as feline immunodeficiency virus which might have predisposed the cats to canine distemper infection. Raccoons (Procyon lotor) were considered the source of the virus in two cases, and dogs were the source in one case (Appel et al. 1994).

During 1993 a large group of privately owned tigers developed symptoms of enteritis, primarily severe diarrhea. This enteritis spread extremely rapidly through this group of cats. Circumstantial evidence indicates that this outbreak may have been due to a primary canine distemper virus infection or a concurrent infection, however canine distemper virus was not isolated.

Rhinotracheitis, Calicivirus, Panleukopenia, Feline Infectious Peritonitis. The upper respiratory viral diseases have been reported in tigers (Von et al. 1981) and have signs similar to those reported in the domestic cat and usually have a high morbidity and low mortality. Treatment is aimed at supportive care.

Panleukopenia has been proven by viral isolation in tigers (Woolf and Swart 1974, Montali et al. 1986) and presents in similar ways to the disease in domestic cats.

Feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) has been confirmed in one Sumatran tiger; it may be an emerging disease problem.

 

Fungal Diseases

Microsporum canis is not an uncommon cause of hair loss in young tigers (Kloss and Lang 1976, Kymhapeb and Cam 1984). Treatment is similar to that in the domestic cat with equally good results. Griseofulvin is given orally at 20 mg/kg/24 hr, or it can be given weekly at 140 mg/kg. A second cutaneous pathogen, Dermatophilosis cargolensis, has been cultured from skin lesions in polar bears and tigers (Kitchen and Dayhuff 1977). The disease has a chronic course but responds to topical and systemic antibiotics.

Coccidioidomycosis was reported in two Bengal tigers with concurrent liver problems living in endemic areas (Hendrickson and Biberstein 1972).

 

Nervous System Disorder

Tigers seem prone to central nervous signs with a wide variety of disease conditions (Blythe et al. 1983, Gould and Fenner 1983, Montali et al. 1986).

 

Congenital Problems

Congenital problems have been reported, and in some instances, may be related to inbreeding (Leipold 1980).

 

Lacerations and Abscesses

Another potential surgical problem is lacerations from fight wounds. Usually lesions are small and are left to drain and granulate in. It is our procedure to give antibiotics orally for 7-10 days after such fights to minimize local infection and bacteremia that may shower to other organs. A common isolate from the mouths of tigers has been Pasteurella multocida (Woolfrey et al. 1985) with Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus viridens as potential problems in tiger bites. Pasteurella multocida usually shows good sensitivity to a wide range of antibiotics with cephalosporins being the drug of choice. Shaving the hair from around all puncture and laceration sites is important to allow drainage and prevent abscess formation.

Abscesses should be clipped and prepped for a sterile culture in order to determine the etiology and guide the choice of antibiotic therapy. The abscess is then opened and drained. Flushing of the lesion with hydrogen peroxide and disinfectant is recommended. The tiger should be treated with systemic broad spectrum antibiotics for 7-10 days. Topical fly repellents applied to these sites will prevent secondary fly larvae infestations.

 

Dental Fractures

Each tooth is examined, once thoroughly cleaned, for evidence of fractures. Teeth fracture longitudinally or transversely, thus exposing the pulp tissue and periapical structures to infection. The canine teeth are especially prone to fracture or wear because of their location and length. Exposure of the root canal is a common finding in dental fracture or excessive wear. A variety of endodontic procedures provide an option to extraction, which is laborious and disfiguring, especially with canine teeth (Van De Grift 1975, Tinkleman 1979, McDonald 1983). Teeth can be salvaged by performing vital or non-vital pulpotomies and filling the root canals. The remaining crown is left intact. Artificial crowns are not practical and are not recommended. For subgingival fractures, vital and non-vital root retention is applicable. Rotterdam Zoo reports surgical apex resection solved an upper root canal infection in a 19-year-old male Sumatran tiger. Radiological examinations of the teeth and adjacent bony structures are invaluable in determining the extent of disease or trauma and the course of therapy to pursue. Extractions must still be considered with advanced disease. Local dental surgeons can be utilized for consultation as well.

 

Euthanasia

The euthanasia of tigers is an issue that has become so polarized that it goes beyond the boundaries of whether it is in the best interest of the animal or the best interest of the species. In past years, the euthanasia of tigers suffering severe injury, contagious diseases or other life-threatening ailments was a relatively straight-forward decision by most zoos. That is not the case today. Powerful animal rights lobbyists have sufficiently influenced the general public, many of whom are also the visiting public, to the point that it is now not clear what constitutes an acceptable euthanasia, regardless of the reason, over what is an unacceptable euthanasia. To date there has been no clear resolution of this issue. Each zoo has its own "unstated" position that is influenced by the prevailing political and public relations climate. For that reason, it is difficult to make a consensus recommendation for the euthanasia of tigers.

The AZA has developed a thoughtful policy for the euthanasia of zoo specimens that can be used as a guide in this issue. This policy on euthanasia does not address the removal of surplus SSP animals in order to meet the genetic and demographic goals of these programs (see Chapter 7, Tiger Policies).

A recommendation from the 1992 AAZPA Felid TAG Meeting gives some new direction on this issue (Policy of the Culling [Euthanasia] of Surplus Animals, AAZPA Felid Action Plan, 1991 and 1992). This recommendation was also endorsed by the AAZPA Tiger SSP at the 1992 Annual AAZPA Meeting in Toronto). Beyond this statement, there is no organizational direction from the AZA/WCMC or the AZA Board of Directors for institutions facing this difficult decision.

 

Necropsy and Pathology

Post-Mortem Examination

Preventive medical programs also depend on the complete post-mortem examination of animals that have died in a zoological collection. This service should provide rapid tentative diagnosis from the gross pathological examination to allow immediate medical care of the remaining collection if indicated. Histopathological examination of tissues is mandatory and should be done in a timely manner to make those findings relevant to the health care of the collection. Concurrent cultures may be indicated for bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Appropriate tissues not formalin fixed may be frozen for viral, toxicology, and genetic studies. Besides determining the cause of death, a complete post-mortem examination allows review of anatomical structure, assessment of nutritional status and parasitic burden of the animal. A copy of the tiger necropsy report should be sent to the AZA Tiger SSP Coordinator, who will then forward copies to researchers analyzing causes of tiger mortality.

Tiger Carcass Disposition

Upon the death of any tiger (Panthera tigris) that is registered in the International Tiger Studbook (Siberian, Sumatran, Indochinese, Bengal, and South China), the following protocol is recommended:

  • Blood samples taken and stored.
  • Carcass put in cooler (do not destroy).
  • Regional Tiger Coordinator contacted for specific instructions regarding tissues and carcass disposition.
  • Report death to the International Studbook Keeper.
  • Owner of the tiger should be notified of the death.
  • Depending on the region and on the condition of the carcass, general disposition routes for the AZA Tiger SSP are
    • Donated to USFWS for their endangered species museum.
    • Hide, skull and skeleton used for zoo education.
    • Hide, skull and skeleton donated to local museum.
    • Skeletal system donated to local university's anatomy department.

Mammary Gland Tumors in Felids

There is considerable concern that some contraceptives (MGA implants and Ovaban) are causing mammary cancer in zoo felids. In order to determine if these contraceptives increase the risks of developing mammary tumors, the types and prevalences of mammary tumors in both contracepted and non-contracepted felids needs to be evaluated. For this evaluation, all available information on any species of felid that has had a mammary tumor, regardless of its contraceptive history needs to be collected. This is an AZA Felid TAG-endorsed study. Your participation will be recognized in any reports or publications resulting from this survey. Please contact the AZA Tiger SSP Coordinator concerning any clinical case or necropsy of a tiger where mammary gland tumors are detected.

Medical Management References
Abdulla, P.K.; James, P.C., et al. Anthrax in a Jaguar (Panthera onca). JOURNAL OF ZOO ANIMAL MEDICINE. 13:151, 1982.
Appel, M.J.G.; Yates, R.A.; Foley, G.L.; Bernstein, J.J.; Santinelli, S.; Spelman, L.H.; Miller, L.D.; Arp, L.H.; Anderson, M.; Barr, M.; Pearce-Kelling, S.; Summers, B.A. Canine distemper epizootic in lions, tigers and leopards in North America. JOURNAL OF VETERINARY DIAGNOSTIC INVESTIGATION, 1994.
Barnett, J.E.F.; Lewis, J.C.M. Medetomidine and detamine anaesthesia in zoo animals and its reversal with atipamezole: A review and update with specific reference to work in British zoos. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF ZOO VETERINARIANS ANNUAL PROCEEDINGS. 207-214, 1990.
Blythe, L.L., et al. Chronic encephalomyelitis caused by canine distemper virus in a Bengal tiger. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN VETERINARY MEDICAL ASSOCIATION. 183:1159-62, 1983.
Bush, M.; Povey, R.C.; Koonse, H. Antibody response to an inactivated vaccine for rhino- tracheitis, caliciviral disease, and panleuko- penia in nondomestic felids. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN VETERINARY MEDI- CAL ASSOCIATION. 179:1203-05, 1981.
Bush, M.; Montali, R.J.; et al. Antibodies response in zoo mammals to a killed rabies virus vaccine. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SYMPOSIUM ON IMMUNOLOGY OF ZOO and WILD ANIMALS. Eds. B.T. Baker and S.K. Stoskopf, 1985.
Bush, M.; Phillips, L.G.; Montali, R.J. Clinical management of captive tigers. In TIGERS OF THE WORLD. R.L. Tilson and U.S. Seal eds. Noyes Publications: Park Ridge, NJ, Pp. 171-204, 1987.
Cociu, M.; Wagner, G.; Micu, N.E.; Mihaeschu, G. Adaptational gastro-enteritis in Siberian tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) in the Bucharest Zoo. INTERNATIONAL ZOO YEARBOOK. 14:171, 1973.
Eulenberger, K. Measurement of creatine concentration in blood serum -- importance to early diagnosis of functional disorders in kidneys of zoo animals, with particular refer- ence to felids. ISEZ. 24:327-35, 1981.
Fagen, D.A. Diet consistency and periodontal disease in exotic carnivores. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF ZOO VETERINARIANS. Annual Proceedings, 1980a.
Fagen, D.A. The pathogenesis of dental disease in carnivores. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF ZOO VETERINARIANS. Annual Proceedings, 1980b.
Fix, A.S.; Riordan, D.P.; Hill, H.T.; Gill, M.A. Evans, M.B. Feline panleukopenia virus and subsequent canine distemper virus infection in two snow leopards (Panthera uncia). JOUNAL OF ZOO WILDLIFE MEDICINE. 20(3):273-281, 1989.
Gould, D.H.; Fenner, W.R. Paramyxovirus-like nucleocaspids associated with encephalitis in a captive Siberian tiger. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN VETERINARY MEDICAL ASSOCIATION. 183:1319-21, 1983.
Haberstroh, L.; Ullrey, D.E.; et al. Diet and oral health in captive amur tigers (Panthera tigris altaica). THE JOURNAL OF ZOO ANIMAL MEDICINE. 15(4):142-46, 1984.
Hendrickson, R.V.; Biberstein, E.L. Coccidioidomycosis accompanying hepatic disease in two Bengal tigers. JOURNAL OF AMERICAN VETERINARY MEDICAL ASSOCIATION. 161:674-76, 1972.
Kitchen, H.; Dayhuff, K Disease of hair in polar bears and Bengal tigers. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF ZOO VETERINARI- ANS. Annual proceedings, 1977.
Kloss, H.G.; Lang, E.M. HANDBOOK OF ZOO MEDICINE: DISEASE AND TREATMENT OF WILD ANIMALS IN ZOOS, GAME PARKS, CIRCUSES AND PRIVATE COLLECTIONS. Van Nostrand Rheinhold Co.: New York, 1976.
Kymhapeb, B.N.; Cam, H.H.H. Microsporosis and candidiasis in tigers and cheetah. IPPEN. 1984.
Leipold, H.W. Congenital defects of zoo and wild mammals: a review. In THE COMPAR- ATIVE PATHOLOGY OF ZOO ANIMALS. R.J. Montali and G. Migaki eds., Smithsonian Institution Press: Washington, D.C., 1980.
Lewis, J.C.M. Anaesthesia of non-domestic cats. In ANAESTHESIA OF THE CAT. L.W. Hall and P.M. Taylor eds. Balliere Tindall: London, Pp. 310-349, 1994.
McDonald, S. Treatment of subgingival fractures in canine teeth. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF ZOO VETERINA- RIANS. Annual Proceedings, 1983.
Michalska, Z. Pathology of pulmonary tuberculosis in big felids in the Zoological Garden of Wroclaw. ISEZ. 14:351-53, 1972.
Michalska, Z.; Kocula, K.; Gucwinski, A. Ocular tuberculosis in a tiger. ISEZ. 20: 297- 98, 1978.
Montali, R.J.; Bartz, C.; Bush, M.; Grate, S. In VIRAL INFECTIONS OF VERTEBRATES. M.J.G. Appel ed. Scientific Publishing Co.: Amsterdam, 1986.
Pulling, F.B. Possible enterotoxemia in a Bengal tiger. JOURNAL OF ZOO ANIMAL MEDICINE. 7:26, 1976.
Rettig, T. A brief review of salmonellosis as a veterinary zoonosis and a case history of (Salmonella pyometraina) in a Bengal tiger performing in a travelling circus. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF ZOO VETERINARIANS. Annual Proceedings, 1983.
Sathyanarayana Rao, M.; Ramachandra, R.N.; Raghavan, R.; Seshadri, S.J.; Keshavamurthy, B.S. Colisepticaemia in tiger cubs. TIGERPAPER. 10:22, 1983.
Seal, U.S.; Erickson, A.W. Immobilization of carnivora and other mammals with phencycli- dine and promazine. FED. PROC. 28:1410- 16, 1969.
Seal, U. Long term control of reproduction in female lion with implanted contraceptives. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF ZOO VETERINARIANS. Annual Proceedings, 1975.
Seal, U. Hormonal contraception in captive female lions. JOURNAL OF ZOO ANIMAL MEDICINE. 7(4):12-20, 1976.
Seal, U.S., Armstrong, D.L. and Simmons, L.G. Yohimbine hydrochloride reversal of ketamine hydrochloride and xylazine hydro- chloride immobilization of bengal tigers and effects on hematology and serum chemistries. JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE DISEASES, 23(2):296-300, 1987.
Seidel, B.; Wisser, J. Clinical diseases of captive tigers-European literature. In TIGERS OF THE WORLD. R.L. Tilson and U.S. Seal eds. Noyes Publications: Park Ridge, Pp. 205-230, 1987.
Seidensticker, J.; Tamang, K.M.; Gray, C.W. The use of CI744 to Immobilize free ranging tigers and leopards. JOURNAL OF ZOO ANIMAL MEDICINE. 5:22, 1974.
Smith, J.L.D.; Sunquist, M.E.; et al. A tech- nique for capturing and immobilizing tigers. JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT. 47:255-59, 1983.
Straub, V.G.; Seidel, B. Klinische labordi- agnostik bei grosskatzen unter besonderer berucksichtigung der tigerkrankheit. IPPEN. 429-37, 1983.
Tinkleman, C. Endodontic treatment of Siberian tigers at the Philadelphia Zoological Gardens. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF ZOO VETERINARIANS. Annual Proceed- ings, 1979.
Van De Grift, E.R. Root canal therapy on a Siberian tiger (Panthera tigris altaica). JOURNAL OF ZOO ANIMAL MEDICINE. 6(3):24, 1975.
Von, H.; Elze, K.; et al. Enzootic occurrence FV rhinotracheitis in large feline animals of Zoological Garden of Leipzig. IPPEN. 1981.
Wallach, J.D.; Boever, W.J. DISEASES OF EXOTIC ANIMALS, MEDICAL AND SURGICAL MANAGEMENT. W.B. Saunders Co.: Philadelphia, 1983.
Woolf, A.; Swart, J. An out break of panleuko- penia. JOURNAL OF ZOO ANIMAL MEDICINE. 5:32-34, 1974.
Woolfrey, B.F.; Quall, C.O.; Lally, R.T. (Pasteurella multocida) in an infected tiger bite. ARCH. PATHOL. LAB. MED. 109: 744-46, 1985.
Zaki, S. Isolation of (Shingella flexneri) from two tiger cubs. CURRENT SCIENCE, 49:288, 1980.
 
 Captive Management contents

  next chapter